What was Total War in the Civil War?
The American Civil War, fought from 1861 to 1865, was a traumatic and transformative event in American history. The war not only resulted in the demise of the Confederate States of America and the abolition of slavery but also marked the beginning of a new era of warfare that would alter the face of modern military conflict. This new brand of warfare, known as "total war," would require a more comprehensive and exhaustive approach to combat, disrupting the very fabric of a nation’s economy, industry, and society.
Contents
Origins of Total War
The concept of total war can be traced back to the early days of Napoleon Bonaparte, who experimented with this type of warfare during his European conquests. Napoleon sought to achieve victory by breaking the back of his enemy’s economy and infrastructure, rendering them powerless to resist further attack. This approach emphasized the military’s role as an "engine of destruction," blurring the lines between the battlefield and civilian society.
By the mid-19th century, European armies continued to develop this strategy, with the Crimean War (1853-1856) serving as a catalyst for further refinement. The Crimean War showed that traditional linear warfare was no longer effective, leading to the introduction of artillery, machine guns, and other technological advancements that shifted the focus to destroying entire armies, cities, and industries.
BREAKING WITH CONVENTION: LINCOLN AND THE UNIFICATION
When Abraham Lincoln became President in 1861, he immediately faced the challenge of saving the Union, which would require a novel approach to warfare. Lincoln’s concept of "supremacy" referred to the federal government’s authority over all territories within the United States, supplanting state sovereignty with national unity.
Habeas Corpus provided the legal foundation for arresting and detaining civilians for suspected disloyalty. This marked a significant deviation from traditional international law and the Convention of Washington (1842-1846), which stressed the importance of distinguishing civilians from combatants.
Under Lincoln’s guidance, General Ulysses Grant’s Army of the Cumberland would spearhead the battle against the Confederate States Army, utilizing unconventional tactics that blurred the distinction between wartime and peacetime realities.
TYPES OF TOTAL WAR IN THE CIVIL WAR
Total war in the American Civil War encompassed a range of strategies and tactics that shattered traditional norms and expectations of warfare. Here are some key examples:
- Burnside’s Raid (**1863-1864**): In November 1863, General Burnside’s army crossed into Confederate territory, engaging the enemy and torching homes, barns, and infrastructure, including rail lines and bridges. This military operation targeted both military supply lines and the enemy population, causing significant destruction.
- Scorched-earth policy: During Sherman’s March to the Sea **(1864-1865)**, Union armies deliberately destroyed vast areas of Confederate territory, leaving economic devastation and crippling the economy.
- Civilian Unionist militias: The use of **citizen forces** like the Ohio Citizen Volunteers, for instance, allowed civilians to join regular military units or fight separate battles against enemy forces within their own region, engaging in **”part-time warfare”**.
- Zouaves (irregular armies): Zouave warriors, recruited from European units, participated in guerrilla warfare, carrying out night raids, ambushing and harassing enemy patrols, in addition to other unconventional skirmishes.
- Fort Anderson’s (Wilmington N.C.) Demolitions: The 19th Connecticut Volunteer Infantry’s construction of explosive fortifications forced Confederate forces to divert energy and resources from main objectives, rendering it difficult to maintain effective troop strength.
TOTAL WAR’S EFFECT ON SOCIETY
Civil War total war did more than simply transform the very fabric of war; **it redefined the contours of society**, blurring the lines between civilian, soldier, and war-profiteer.
Key Points:
- ECONOMIC IMPACT:
• The massive destruction of resources and assets led to the disentanglement of supply chain networks.
• Farmers and workers had to struggle to survive amid chaos. - SOCIAL CONFLICT:
• **War and Slavery:** Total war, once it targeted Confederate resources directly, created divisions between abolitionist and anti-slavery unionists and moderate slave-holder sympathizers, heightening tensions.</li>Evolving Public Expectations:
As total war took precedence, American citizens evolved their expectations about warfighting:
- Total war created public anxiety but also boosted war effort efforts.
- Newspaper articles regularly reported on battle updates.
- War Bond campaigns proliferated.
- Union Patriotic movements surged.
- Total War transformed citizens into de facto combatants, creating shared national awareness.
ASSIMILATING THE TRAUMATIC EXPERIENCES
**Total War Legacies: Shaping U.S. War Strategies, 1865-Present**
The U.S. Civil War exemplifies one of the first significant applications of total war strategies, introducing a novel form of all-encompassing conflict resolution. **American society forever changed** under the banner of total war, ultimately shaping future American war theories and tactics:
**Legacies:**
* Global conflicts:
• American involvement in WWI-WWII demonstrated an early understanding of the significance and impact of total war’s principles.
* 1991 Gulf War and Gulf War II’s strategic efforts, e.g., focusing on logistics and communication destruction, owed some inspiration from Civil War era experiences.
